The Definition, History, and Impact of Redlining

Redlining, a process by which banks and other institutions refuse to offer mortgages or offer worse rates to customers in certain neighborhoods based on their racial and ethnic composition, is one of the clearest examples of institutionalized racism in the history of the United States. Although the practice was formally outlawed in 1968 with the passage of the Fair Housing Act, it continues in various forms to this day. History of Housing Discrimination Fifty years after the abolition of slavery, local governments continued to legally enforce housing segregation through exclusionary zoning laws, city ordinances which prohibited the sale of property to Black people. In 1917, when the Supreme Court ruled these zoning laws unconstitutional, homeowners swiftly replaced them with racially restrictive covenants, agreements between property owners which banned the sale of homes in a neighborhood to certain racial groups. By the time the Supreme Court found racially restrictive covenants themselves unconstitutional in 1947, the practice was so widespread that these agreements were difficult to invalidate and almost impossible to reverse. According to a magazine article, 80% of neighborhoods in Chicago and Los Angeles carried racially restrictive covenants by 1940. The Federal Government Begins Redlining The federal government was not involved in housing until 1934 when the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) was created as part of the New Deal. The FHA sought to restore the housing market after the Great Depression by incentivizing homeownership and introducing the mortgage lending system we still use today. Instead of creating policies to make housing more equitable, the FHA did the opposite. It took advantage of racially restrictive covenants and insisted that the properties they insured use them. Along with the Home Owner’s Loan Coalition (HOLC), a federally-funded program created to help homeowners refinance their mortgages, the FHA introduced redlining policies in over 200 American cities. Beginning in 1934, the HOLC included in the FHA Underwriting Handbook â€Å"residential security maps† used to help the government decide which neighborhoods would make secure investments and which should be off-limits for issuing mortgages. The maps were color-coded according to these guidelines: Green (â€Å"Best†): Green areas represented in-demand, up-and-coming neighborhoods where â€Å"professional men† lived. These neighborhoods were explicitly homogenous, lacking â€Å"a single foreigner or Negro.†Blue (â€Å"Still Desirable†): These neighborhoods had â€Å"reached their peak† but were thought to be stable due to their low risk of â€Å"infiltration† by non-white groups.Yellow (â€Å"Definitely Declining†): Most yellow areas bordered black neighborhoods. They were considered risky due to the â€Å"threat of infiltration of foreign-born, negro, or lower grade populations.†Red (â€Å"Hazardous†): Red areas were neighborhoods where â€Å"infiltration† had already occurred. These neighborhoods, almost all of them populated by Black residents, were described by the HOLC as having an â€Å"undesirable population† and were ineligible for FHA backing. These maps would help the government decide which properties were eligible for FHA backing. Green and blue neighborhoods, which usually had majority-white populations, were considered good investments. It was easy to get a loan in these areas. Yellow neighborhoods were considered â€Å"risky† and red areas (those with the highest percentage of Black residents) were ineligible for FHA backing. The End of Redlining The Fair Housing Act of 1968, which explicitly prohibited racial discrimination, put an end to legally-sanctioned redlining policies like those used by the FHA. However, like racially restrictive covenants, redlining policies were difficult to stamp out and have continued even in recent years. A 2008 paper, for example, found denial rates for loans to Black people in Mississippi to be disproportionate compared to any racial discrepancy in credit score history. In 2010, an investigation by the United States Justice Department found that the financial institution Wells Fargo had used similar policies to restrict loans to certain racial groups. The investigation began after a New York Times article exposed the company’s own racially-biased lending practices. The Times reported that loan officers had referred to their Black customers as â€Å"mud people† and to the subprime loans they pushed on them â€Å"ghetto loans.† Redlining policies are not limited to mortgage lending, however. Other industries also use race as a factor in their decision-making policies, usually in ways that ultimately hurt minorities. Some grocery stores, for example, have been shown to raise prices of certain products in stores located in primarily Black and Latino neighborhoods. Impact The impact of redlining goes beyond the individual families who were denied loans based on the racial composition of their neighborhoods. Many neighborhoods that were labeled â€Å"Yellow† or â€Å"Red† by the HOLC back in the 1930s are still underdeveloped and underserved compared to nearby â€Å"Green† and â€Å"Blue† neighborhoods with largely white populations. Blocks in these neighborhoods tend to be empty or lined with vacant buildings. They often lack basic services, like banking or healthcare, and have fewer job opportunities and transportation options. The government may have put an end to the redlining policies that it created in the 1930s, but as of 2018, it has yet to offer adequate resources to help neighborhoods recover from the damage that these policies inflicted. Sources Coates, Ta-Nehisi. â€Å"The Case for Reparations.†Ã‚  The Atlantic, Atlantic Media Company, 17 Aug. 2017, www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/.â€Å"1934: Federal Housing Administration Created.†Ã‚  Fair Housing Center of Greater Boston, www.bostonfairhousing.org/timeline/1934-FHA.htmlâ€Å"The Legacy of Redlining in Rust Belt Cities.†Ã‚  Belt Magazine, beltmag.com/the-legacy-of-redlining-in-rust-belt-cities/.Redlining (1937- ) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed, www.blackpast.org/aah/redlining-1937.â€Å"Understanding Fair Housing,† U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Clearinghouse Publication 42, February 1973. Electronically accessed,  http://www.law.umaryland.edu/marshall/usccr/documents/cr11042.pdfLab, Digital Scholarship. â€Å"Mapping Inequality.†Ã‚  Digital Scholarship Lab, dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/.

What is Love Essay - 1558 Words

What is Love? Romantic Love Is love chemical? Love cant be just pheromones, surely body chemistry changes. Although, perhaps that is why people break up after a while. Maybe they were attracted to each other at one point, but then the pheromones they were giving off change and the other person is no longer attracted to them. What is attraction based on? What attracts one person to another? People have said they have fallen in love before meeting in person, thanks to the Internet. Pheromones cant account for that. If someone falls in love, without meeting the other person (in-person), what is left? Voice, a photo or two, etc. Perhaps attraction is oral. But attraction cant be just voice, because plenty of people†¦show more content†¦To me this doesnt feel like it can be the same love as a couple in a healthy relationship. Although Helen Fisher divides love into three categories, lust, attraction, and attachment, these categories dont help in determining what love is or how and why we are attracted to some people and not others. Her categories give us tools for putting romantic love into context, but not in explaining what love, unless you accept that its solely brain responses to a person. That feels like the whole chicken and the egg discussion. What will you react to? What will you be attracted to? What will get brain activity going? Cause and effect. What Dr. Fisher discusses is the effect of love, but not what it is. Lust (or sex drive), is physical, but does it come solely from physical attraction? Attraction is one of her categories, but why are people attracted to each other? And finally attachment, why do we feel attached to some people? What is falling in love, and out of love? How do we measure love? How is loving someone different from being in love with someone? In the marketplace, an items value is determined by what the public is willing to pay for it. There seem to be few tools for measuring love. You cant put a price on love, so its hard to say if one person loves another more or less than the other. Dr. Fishers MRIs might be just the thing couples need when they are fighting and one wants to prove toShow MoreRelatedWhat Is Love? What It Is?1527 Words   |  7 PagesWhat is Love? When asked the question â€Å"What is Love?† what are some of the first things that come to mind? Some people might say it is an emotion that we experience when we interact with the world around us. People can have love for many things such as money and other material possessions, family and friends, even the world around them. These are just a few examples of how we often use love in our lives. However, love is not only confined to our lives, it is also a very important emotion in religionsRead MoreWhat Is Love?1020 Words   |  5 Pages250 Tu/Thu 10/5/10 What is Love? 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The whole thing was kind of an illusion, at least the romantic part. Cecilia was Daniel’s girl.† â€Å"That didn’t bother you this past summer—you were head over heels in love.† â€Å"Yeah, with a girl astral projectingRead MoreWhat is Love?589 Words   |  2 PagesWhat is â€Å"Love†? Love can be defined as different things. Love can be the love between brother and sister, sibling love, like Ender and Val. Love can also be the love between a boyfriend and girlfriend or a husband and wife, like Val and her husband, which the book doesn’t really talk much about, or Novinha and Libo. In strange cases, the love you should have for a girlfriend or wife but you feel that way for your sister, like Miro and Ouanda. Love is one of the weirdest feeling ever and is somethingRead MoreWhat Is Love Essay796 Words   |  4 PagesMonday Oct. 19th What is Love? According to Webster’s dictionary the word love is described as a strong, positive emotion of regard and affection. But in society today it seems as if we throw the word love around in such a loose manner it really has lost its meaning. Ranging from â€Å"I love Coach purses†, to actually telling a person â€Å"I love you† is now a common thing. Throughout this essay I’ll be taking a philosophical approach to help give a better understanding of what love is according to theRead MoreWhat Is Freedom For Love? Essay746 Words   |  3 PagesWhat is Freedom to Love? Some would say that freedom to love is, having no limitations or boundaries. To see everyone equally. Many would say that freedom to love is, to give ones life for another. I agree with both statements but I would go further to say that freedom to love is not only an act or a response but it is a lifestyle. Something that defines you. Something that make you, who you are. As proud Americans, this month we celebrate the freedom that we have in this country and theRead MoreWhat is Love? Essay571 Words   |  3 PagesWhat is Love? Love, love, love, we hear it every day, every where , it is used so often that we don’t really give it a thought. The question that needs to be answered is what really is love? Was love created so that hate can be suppressed? Is love something that both man and woman hope for when their world comes crashing down on them? Does love help relief pain and suffering felt by victims of natural disasters? Aphrodite, Venus, Cupid, and Eros were well know as the gods of love and sex by

Internal Controls Relating to the Bjb Company Free Essays

All publicly trader companies in the USA are required to maintain and have an up to date system of internal controls. Since the LJB Company is wishing to become a public entity, I am glad to be able to assist in this action. First, the rules and regulations must be reviewed and compared to the company and how it can become public. We will write a custom essay sample on Internal Controls Relating to the Bjb Company or any similar topic only for you Order Now To make the company attractive to buyers, investors, and other capital sources, it is crucial that the corporate organization and governance are well manifested. Corporate executives and the board of directors within a corporation must ensure that these internal controls are effective. The reliability and efficiency of the internal controls must be directed and supervised by the board of directors and corporate executives (Kimmel 345). Because the LJB Company is a small sized company in regards to the employee number, there should be a re-evaluation of the costs versus the benefits of being a publicly traded company. It would be best to know how the company would deal with stock in this case. A stock report needs to be made and discussed further regarding the number of shares, issuing stock, and stock value for the LJB Company. To safeguard the assets, enhance the reliability of the accounting records, increase efficiency within the financial operations, safeguard the assets of the company, and ensure proper compliance with the laws and regulations, the Internal Control report is crucial to the company. A controlled environment, risk assessment, activity control, information and communication, and group monitoring should all be a part of the internal control report (Kimmel 349). From the given information, the internal control components of an effective internal control system are not as efficient as they can be. Because LBJ is trying to go public in the near future, there are some requirements that must be met in within the internal control system. It is the responsibility of the management on how important ethics are within the organization. Secondly, the management should address the employees on what kind of risks are associated in regards to having unethical activity. One example is fraud. In order tor educe fraud, the management must implement policies and procedures regarding education in what the consequence of the employee and company will be if fraud is detected. Due to the small number of employees in the LJB Copmany, there is an advantage over competitors. Because employees show long term commitment, there is a loyalty and employee retention. It is also easier to manage the employees and implementing new rules and regulations will be handled in an easier manner. The decision to switch to pre-numbered invoices was a great idea by the accountants and the indelible ink machine purchase was a great investment. These pre-numbered invoices are going to be a great aid in preventing transactions more than once and will be helpful in keeping track of recorded transactions. It will also help the timeliness of the accounting entries from the employees’ transactions. This will restore the reliability of the accounting records and their accuracy. The use of physical controls like this is crucial in the internal control environment. In addition, the holding of checks in a safe place is in accordance with the principles of internal physical control as well and it reflects the safeguard of assets—which in turn, improves the reliability and accuracy of the accounting records. Because of the monthly bank reconciliation and sole purchasing of the supplies, the accountant is acting as a treasurer and controller at the same time it seems. This is a violation of the segregation of duties principle (Kimmel 355). Various frauds are possible when this dual role is employed. In order to deliver an effective and controlled system within the internal controls environment, the use of physical custody needs to be separated from record keeping duties. Fraudulent activity will be detected if documentation and independent verification is not employed. In regards to cash receipts, there should be a designated employee such as a cashier to handle the cash. Also, proper cash recording of receiving and having custody of cash, cash register and over the counter receipts, total deposits of receipts, register receipts, as well as bank deposit slips should be performed daily (as frequent as possible). Lastly, there should be a limited authorized employee number to handle the company cash safes and cash storage in the bank (Kimmel 352). The internal controls of the LJB Company would benefit from authorizing employees that are designated for treasury purposes only. These individuals would only deal with checks and approve payments while keeping account for the checks with an approved invoice, as well as stamping each approved invoice that has been paid. Secondly, there needs to be a safe or vault that stores the blank checks and it is restricted access to only certain authorized individuals. The machine needs to be printed with indelible ink for the correct amount. Lastly, there needs to be monthly reconciliations of bank and book balances; the company needs to have approved invoices of checks before issuing payment(s). The internal control principles are based on responsibility of different employees. In the case that all employees have access to the petty cash drawer, it will be impossible to determine who may be responsible for an error if it occurred. It would be recommended that only one person is responsible for this handling. This petty cash should be held in a safe or vault and the person designated for access should report to the supervisor on a weekly basis in regards to the withdrawals therein. Lastly for the LJB Company, to ensure proper employee conduct and ethical conduct, the hiring process is very important for the internal control issue. The human resources department should control and monitor background checks that are thorough and confidential. The company’s information and security is at risk with the employees, so making sure that the employee value integrity will be crucial in the long-run success of the company. In order to have better physical internal control and human resource control, there needs to be restricted access to computers and information therein. First and foremost, there needs to be an installed software program that blocks certain websites. Upon hiring, the employee should attain his or her own password and login to have access to the computer. Software also exists that detects the websites accessed and a track record of login at particular times. Once an employee has their own login and password, they are solely responsible for the work they do on that computer. In summary, if all of the above listed suggested practices are taken into account and properly implemented, the LJB Company will thrive as a the publicly traded corporation. References Kimmel. Financial Accounting. 6. VitalSource Bookshelf. John Wiley Sons. How to cite Internal Controls Relating to the Bjb Company, Essay examples

Conceptual and Empirical Review of Culture Effectiveness Surveys

Question: Discuss about the Conceptual and Empirical Review of Culture Effectiveness Surveys. Answer: Introduction: The article highlights the rise of the famous automobile organization Ford Automobile company and it is the perfect example of how organization used to get developed 100 years ago through Workers control. The process that Ford used at that period is now obsolete but still was extremely effective in the early 20th century. The main ideas and concepts derived from this article are mentioned below. When the company Ford Automobiles was initially found by forming partnership with Malcomson who was a coal dealer, the company used to use manufacturing technique which was extremely costly and time consuming. During that period the car assembling process was extremely complicated. The worker had to bring every parts of the car to one particular place and then they used to assemble the entire car. The process was so time consuming and expensive that it became extremely hard for Ford to sell car at an affordable price. It almost took 12 hours time for the workers to do their work. The production was also getting hampered. Due to this Ford hired famous management theorist Fredrick Winslow Tailor so that he can get some help in solving these problems (Aitken, 2014). When Frendrick WinslowTaylor heard the details of the problems that ford were facing him immediately understood the main reason behind time consumption. He also believed that all people should be given work which is suited to that persons capability. This is why he introduced Assembly line. In the year 1908 Ford implemented the assembly line theory which helped the company to reduce time and cost. The car was moved from one work station to another where every worker performed their specialized task before moving to another station. Ford also observed that some small works used to take longer time than big work this is why Ford changed the entire tooling method. In the year 1913 introduced a new assembly line. Less time consuming: Using the new techniques and machines introduced by Fords it became very easy for the company to meet its target production. Model T which was the most popular car of the company was produced within 93 minutes after implementing this assembly line process. This also brought down the cars price to 575$. This was a great sign of the power of the management theory assembly line. This gave a huge boost to the business (Anitha and Begum, 2016). Attractive Packages for employees: The main motto of the company was to reward every employee who works hard for the objective of the company. Ford believed in the concept that if employees are paid well, they will work more hard. So he converted this concept of his into company policy. Many MNC have implemented taylorism in their organization. As a result of which they even got huge benefit. Their philosophy was simple and that is work hard so that companies becomes successful in achiving production and in return get rewarded with money and all other extra benefits. This is the core concept of scientific management. So in other words it can be said that scientific management is the way through which work is done in an organization systematically and by providing right task to the right people. In this modern era it has been found that lots of companies including top brands like MC Donalds and Burger King follows this principle of scientific management. They make sure that whoever does a good job for a period of time then that person gets rewarded accordingly. They also provide incentives for extra work and all other extra benefits and rewards like employee of the month which boosts the morale of their workers hugely. So it can be concluded the model that Taylor for med to help Ford is still acknowledged by most of the companies around the world. Different researchers have given various definitions of organization culture. Robbie Katanga has described culture as how the organization does things. It is how the workforce behaves in the organization. Famous philosopher Aristotle has given another definition of culture which says that in we are what we do repeatedly. This means that an organization but have a fixed set of rules which must be followed regularly in order to have a proper organizational culture. The dedication of people working becomes powerful when incentives get attached with the culture. The more rewards is given to the people the organizational culture becomes productive. From the view point of Michael Watkins, a culture is almost an immune system of the organization. Organization culture prevents an organization from people who thinks badly for the organization. Like the immune system prevents the human body from bacteria and fungus, organizational culture also prevents the organization from wrong people. A goo d organizational culture takes the most positive thing from an employee working in the organization. Organizational culture has also been termed as story and the value of the organizations are the narrative. As per my finding culture of any organizations is the shared value and belief that makes an employee to behaved in an organization. There are different types of industries all around the world. One cannot compare work culture of Mac Donalds to work culture of Delloite because both these companies belong to completely different industries. Still both these companies have distinctive culture which has helped them to become successful in their own respective industries. I strongly believe with Michael Watkins and Robie Katangas opinions. It is a fact that if an organization has a proper culture then no employee can do any sort of mischief which could hamper the work flow of the organization. It is really the immune system of the organization. A few decades ago the difference in culture was only seen in different industry. Nowadays even companies belonging to same industry can have different culture. Due to globalization people from different countries are travelling to other countries f or work. These migratory people create huge impact on the organizations culture. So companies must make sure that organizational culture is designed in such a way that it welcomes people from any part of the world if that person has the capability of working. Bibliography Aitken, H.G., 2014.Scientific Management in Action: Taylorism at Watertown Arsenal, 1908-1915. Princeton University Press. Anitha, J. and Begum, F.N., 2016. Role of Organisational Culture and Employee Commitment in Employee Retention.ASBM Journal of Management,9(1), p.17. Cameron, K., 2015. Organizational effectiveness.Wiley Encyclopedia of Management. Denison, D., Nieminen, L. and Kotrba, L., 2014. Diagnosing organizational cultures: A conceptual and empirical review of culture effectiveness surveys.European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology,23(1), pp.145-161. Hogan, S.J. and Coote, L.V., 2014. Organizational culture, innovation, and performance: A test of Schein's model.Journal of Business Research,67(8), pp.1609-1621. Huhtala, M., Feldt, T., Hyvnen, K. and Mauno, S., 2013. Ethical organisational culture as a context for managers personal work goals.Journal of Business Ethics,114(2), pp.265-282. Witzel, M. and Warner, M., 2015. Taylorism revisited: Culture, management theory and paradigm-shift.Journal of General Management,40(3), pp.55-69.

Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review Essay Example

Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review Essay Lit Review: Child Labor In Cocoa Production and Fair Trade Chocolate By Sarah Kopperl Introduction: I have always had a love affair with chocolate. When I was little I thought the best job in the world would be to be a chocolatier, and have my own candy shop. I often visited Hershey P. A. and went to Hershey World, never wondering why they didn’t tell us much about how the cocoa was grown and harvested, only looking forward to the chocolate bar at the end of the â€Å"How Chocolate is Made† ride, and the roller coasters to come. As I have grown up, my intentions for a career have changed, but my love of chocolate has stayed. During the summer I took a course that had me researching commodities in South American countries and came across an article about child labor in chocolate production, which is discussed in more detail below. Since then I have tried to buy mostly fair trade chocolate, but didn’t really think too hard about it. Because of this project, I have dug into what Fair Trade is, why it is needed, and the underlying causes of child labor in cocoa farming communities. We will write a custom essay sample on Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It made me think past the candy bar to the process of making it. Corporate Websites: The corporate websites I looked at were hesrheys. com, and usa. cadbury. com. Through the corporate websites I was hoping to learn about where their cocoa comes from, how chocolate is made, and some statistics on chocolate. I was also hoping to see how the companies are working towards sustainable cocoa crops and if they are Fair Trade or if they are doing anything to support fair wages and better living conditions for cocoa farmers. Hershey’s has a printer and user friendly section on how chocolate is made which talks very little about how cocoa is grown and harvested, focusing more on how cocoa is processed. (4) The site also links directly to the Hershey Company website which is separate from the site that would come up if searched in google. This is where the mission statement, information for investors, and a section on corporate responsibility are available. The company signed a protocol in 2001 to ensure children are not being harmed hrough cocoa production but both websites fail to state where the majority of their cocoa comes from. It also discusses supporting ECHOES and ICI to work towards sustainability and fair practices for cocoa farmers, but none of the cocoa used is Fair Trade Certified. (5) At my grocery store, Hershey bars are sold for less than a dollar, which is often the cheapest chocolate bar I can find. This makes me wonder if by flexing its corporate muscle, Hershey is forcing desper ate farmers to use child labor and treat all workers poorly. The Cadbury brand was recently acquired by Kraft, but still maintains a separate website from the massive corporation. The website fails to really explain how chocolate is made or where it comes from, but does give some incite as to when chocolate first went commercial and then corporate. It is one of the older companies out there, starting in 1825. The section about what the company strives for explains quite a bit about how cocoa farmers wind up being exploited and why child labor isn’t a surprise in the industry, since the focus is growth, efficiency, and capability. The website is upstanding in that it has a strong section on corporate responsibility, stating that Cadbury in the UK and Ireland are fair-trade certified, as is the cocoa used to make Green and Black, one of the offshoot brands of Cadbury. This portion of the site also discusses the Cadbury Cocoa Partnership, which is working with the United Nations to improve farmer outcomes and develop communities. I also found some nifty facts in random places, such as how much cocoa is used by the company annually. The facts are not static, the pop up each time you move to a new section of the site. 6) I felt like the Cadbury site was a good example of a corporation responding to customer demand by moving towards fair trade cocoa, and by showing the initiatives the company is taking to help the lives of cocoa farmers. Child Labor: One of the common themes I found when researching how cocoa is grown and harvested was the use of child and/or slave labor. A major expose was done on the subject by S udarsan Raghavan and Sumana Chatterjee and published by Knight Ridder Newspapers in 2001. It then hit other major media outlets including the BBC, as well as organizations such as Global Exchange. The expose paints a picture of young boys working long hard hours with little food, poor health care and daily beatings. It also explains the challenges faced by those in poverty in Mali and surrounding regions where children are offered money for their families and a chance to see other parts of the world in order to lure them into the work. Finally it points to the lack of control over market prices and the hidden nature of slavery in Africa, claiming that the responsibility is placed on the government and manufacturers of chocolate. 1) While I agree that this is where major influences lie, I also think it fails to hold the consumer AND the growers accountable. Also, governments in the countries where the cocoa is sold need to be held accountable as well. This expose was one of the first if not the first items I read about child labor in chocolate, and it made me want to look further into the subject. I feel like it will be useful in showing the consumer the realities faced by stru ggling cocoa workers on the Ivory Coast. One of the sites I came across was Stop Chocolate Slavery. It has a section called Take Action which gives advice for consumers on how to work towards child labor free chocolate. It also has a section called Slave Free chocolate which lists some products that the site deems worthy of consumer purchase. (8) I will use this site for my section about what can be done by consumers. I also used the News and Information section to find a link to the expose mentioned above. (8) Another source I found was an article written by Sarah Cheyes called â€Å"Chocolate and Slavery. One of the first things Cheyes points out is that forced labor is a problem around d the world because humans are seen as commodities and children are used and discarded; being seen as easily replaceable. She discusses the initiatives sought to place â€Å"Slave Free† labels on products in 2001 and how the U. S. chocolate industry responded by sending lobbyists to ward off the possible legislation, claiming that the labels would hurt the people of West Africa and that th ey had no way of knowing what cocoa beans were slave free because all beans were combined together before delivery. The chocolate companies themselves said they were not responsible for the farming practices of their suppliers. After major media articles and with impending government action, the companies finally decided on action. They signed the Harkin- Engel Protocol, which was facilitated by 3 senators in late 2001, was designed to eliminate the worst forms of child labor in the chocolate industry by 2005. It was signed by most of the major chocolate manufacturers along with several progressive organizations. However, it only targets child labor in West Africa, and is not a LAW but a protocol. This means it is difficult to enforce, and it does not address the problem in other cocoa producing countries. It also fails to address the causes of forced or child labor in poor countries. (2) Cheyes includes a section in her article on the causes of child labor in cocoa manufacturing, pointing to the fact that manufacturers encourage poor countries to grow cocoa, and with a mass supply, this drives down market prices for the commodity. This often forces poor farmers to save on costs any way possible, including child labor. According to the Prime Minister of the Ivory Coast, manufacturers would have to pay more than ten times what they do in order to end forced labor in cocoa production. It would also help to educate farmers about how the market works and find ways for the 40 percent population of the country to be less dependent on cocoa. Farmers are unable to communicate and often forced to rely on middlemen who cheat them. Also, there haven’t been enough efforts to create a stable and sufficient price for cocoa. This causes producer incomes to remain low, and poverty means desperation. (8) Chocolate And Slavery† also discusses alternatives, including Fair Trade collectives that require a signature from purchasers guaranteeing a fair price plus a premium that guarantee a living wage for farmers as well as money that goes into a fund for improvements in the community. Cheyes also mentions that some manufacturers simply don’t buy cocoa from West Africa. This solution fails to address or eradicate the problem, and may actually hurt the farmers more. She also discusses the responses of those in the chocolate industry as well as professional cooks and pastry chefs. She mentions one manufacturer representative who denied the existence of a problem. She also talks about the conflict of a professional asking a purveyor for slave free cocoa or the sobering reality that one uses cocoa that is slave manufactured, but is unable or unwilling to do anything about it. She goes on to point out that it may be those professionals who wield the most power to create change. We live in a world of celebrity chefs and cooking shows that glamorize the profession, and if those celebrities would make an effort they could make a huge difference. They do however face a conflict, in that by angering major chocolate manufacturers, they may lose the sponsorships that allow their fame to continue. (8) Cheyes closes out her article with a section on what can be done by the general public. She encourages education on the subject, both for you and for others. She says to write letters to chocolate manufacturers, and if in the industry to work with your purveyors to find chocolate derived from free market cocoa. Of course she encourages the purchase of only free trade chocolate, and to encourage others to do the same. (8) I found this article incredibly informative. It gave me a much better perspective on the causes behind both child and forced labor in the cocoa industry, as well as some of the politics in the U. S. surrounding the problem. It also gave me insight into why the problem may still exist. I will use much of this information in my background section, as well as my fact section. More recently an independent audit by Tulane University shows that the efforts that were supposed to create 100 percent child free labor certification by 2010, have failed to even come close to reaching goals. The article â€Å"Child Labor Still Key in Ingredient in Chocolate Industry,† shows that the Harkin-Engel Protocol which created community based education and monitoring programs has done some good, but less than 3 percent of cocoa growing villages in the Ivory Coast have been visited by monitors. The article does mention that Kraft in the U. S. plans to carry chocolate that is labeled sustainable and Mars, the largest buyer of cocoa in the world, plans to go completely sustainable by 2020. This does not; however mean that the cocoa is Fair Trade or slave free. There is no mention of Hershey at all in the article, nor does it offer other smaller brands or companies that use sustainable cocoa, nor why the problem of child labor exists. (3) This article shows that more still needs to be done to encourage free market cocoa use by major companies. It also shows that there needs to be more education on the differences between sustainable and fair trade. Fair Trade and Sustainability: Another theme I found when researching chocolate was Fair Trade Cocoa, and Sustainable cocoa farming. Buying Fair Trade chocolate is one of the things all consumers can do to help cocoa farmers around the world. Sustainable cocoa farming is important for preserving the environment. One of the sources I found about Fair Trade is the website for Fair Trade USA, which is the only Independent, third-party Fair Trade Certifier in the U. S. at this time. It is also one of 24 members of Fair Trade Labeling Organizations International (FLO. ) The company site gives an overview and definition of Fair Trade in the section called Fair Trade Overview. It explains the principles of Fair Trade, including fair price, fair labor conditions, direct trade, democratic and transparent organizations, community development, and environmental sustainability. There is a section called Social benefits which talks about kids being able to go to school instead of working on the farms, farmers being able to feed their families, and efforts to help educate the community and provide healthcare. It also provides a FAQ section as well as information about the organization such as the board of directors as mission statements. 7) I find it interesting that one organization holds the monopoly on providing Fair Trade certifications in the U. S. and that it seems to operate like a corporation. While this website helped me understand the Fair Trade certification process, and I think the idea of Fair Trade is super important, I wonder if this organization is making money off of the process, and if so, where that money goes. Another organization whose websit e I used as a source was that of the FLO. The FLO is 24 international organizations that set international fair trade standards and support fair trade producers. The site explains how standards for fair trade are set and who sets them. It gives a strong explanation as to what fair trade is and how it can benefit the growing community. There is a timeline about how FLO started and a section on the international Fair Trade label. There is a section that allows you to search for fair trade price and premium minimums, and an updated section on the standards for each certified product. I was sad to find upon searching that many standards in regard to cocoa were pre 2004, and had not been recently updated. 10) This shows me that although Fair Trade is an amazing advance for the cocoa industry, more needs to be done. The price that would allow a living wage for a cocoa farmer has surely changed since 2004, so these organizations need to step it up. Maybe there needs to be a different system set up that allows prices to fluctuate based on inflation and other economic factors. I found the World Cocoa Foundation website to be incredibly helpful as well . There are sections called Who We are and one called What We Do give background on the foundation. Their mission is to, â€Å"†¦promote a sustainable cocoa economy through economic and social development and environmental stewardship in cocoa-growing communities. † What We Do is broken down by region. In the Africa section I learned that 70 percent of the world cocoa supply comes from Africa, 90 percent of which is grown on nearly 2 million family farms consisting of 2 hectares or less of land. The World Cocoa Foundation holds to their mission in many ways, such as training farmers to better manage pests and to diversify crops, improving education at all levels, and teaching about HIV/AIDS and providing health care. Another section called Sustainability Principles and Goals shows more efforts made by the foundation based on specific goals such as Profit, People, and the Planet. A section called Learn About Cocoa breaks down the cocoa commodity chain from harvest, straight on through to the global market. This section taught me that cocoa has to be harvested by hand, and that the beans must ferment before shipping, and reminded me of the process for making that bar of chocolate. There is also a section that addresses efforts to curb child labor. 9) This website shows that there are efforts to help cocoa farmers that don’t just include Fair Trade, and that one can get involved on a deeper level than writing organization or buying Fair Trade certified chocolate if they want to. The site also gave me quite a bit of history and background information about cocoa and chocolate. Conclusion: My research brought to me to many conclusions, and brought up as many questions as it answered. I wonder w ho is on the board of stakeholders for FLO. Does the board that creates fair trade standards for cocoa include cocoa farmers who are more aware of the realities of middle men and harsh conditions, or does it only include CEO’s and other higher level corporate types who are driven by profit and disconnected from the farmers? I also question why the U. S. government sponsored and corporately signed Harkin-Engel Protocol in only a protocol and hasn’t been changed into a law which is more enforceable and holds those who signed it more accountable for their actions. The average consumer has no idea that forced and child labor exists in the chocolate industry or why it does. They may know about fair trade chocolate and have a general idea of what fair trade is, but they often balk at the extra cost, preferring to reach for the $1. 00 Hershey bar or bag of Mamp;M’s. I think that it is so important to make consumers aware of the commodity chain that goes into producing the food we eat. It is important for consumers to know how much the cocoa farmer is getting paid, and what projects are being funded by buying fair trade chocolate. I also think it’s important for consumers to be aware of how their demand for lower cost food is affecting everyone down the commodity chain. I think it is important for the media to continue showing pieces that expose working conditions for farmers in third world countries, and for people to be more curious about their food. In order to find more information, people have to dig deeper, going to media sources that are not big corporate run sources, and hold themselves, their governments, and corporations responsible. It is important to take little steps, which will in turn add up to bigger steps. Becoming informed, demanding fair trade cocoa use from big chocolate manufacturers, buying only fair trade, sustainable chocolate, and getting to know your local farmer so you feel reconnected to the food will eventually add up to a stronger movement towards responsible, fair, and sustainable cocoa and chocolate production. Sources: 1) Chatterjee, Sumana and Raghavan, Sudarsan, â€Å"A Taste of Slavery,† Knight Ridder Newspapers, June 24th, 2001, accessed via http://vision. ucsd. edu/~kbranson/stopchocolateslavery/atasteofslavery. html#pa rt1 2) Chayes, Sarah, â€Å"Chocolate and Slavery†, Chocolate Work, http://www. hocolatework. com/chocolate-slavery. htm 3) Oved, Marco, Chown, â€Å"Child Labor Still Key Ingredient to Chocolate Industry,† Associated Press, October 8th 2010, accessed via http://www. theglobeandmail. com/news/world/africa-mideast/forced-child-labour-still-key-ingredient-to-chocolate-industry-study/article1749279/ 4) http://www. hersheys. com/ 5) http://www. thehersheycompany. com/ 6) http://usa. cadbury. com/Pages/Home. aspx 7) http://www. transfairusa. org/ 8) http://vision. ucsd. edu/~kbranson/stopchocolateslavery/main. html 9) http://www. worldcocoafoundation. org/index. html 10) http://www. fairtrade. net/ Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review Essay Example Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review Essay Lit Review: Child Labor In Cocoa Production and Fair Trade Chocolate By Sarah Kopperl Introduction: I have always had a love affair with chocolate. When I was little I thought the best job in the world would be to be a chocolatier, and have my own candy shop. I often visited Hershey P. A. and went to Hershey World, never wondering why they didn’t tell us much about how the cocoa was grown and harvested, only looking forward to the chocolate bar at the end of the â€Å"How Chocolate is Made† ride, and the roller coasters to come. As I have grown up, my intentions for a career have changed, but my love of chocolate has stayed. During the summer I took a course that had me researching commodities in South American countries and came across an article about child labor in chocolate production, which is discussed in more detail below. Since then I have tried to buy mostly fair trade chocolate, but didn’t really think too hard about it. Because of this project, I have dug into what Fair Trade is, why it is needed, and the underlying causes of child labor in cocoa farming communities. We will write a custom essay sample on Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Chocolate and Fair Trade Lit Review specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer It made me think past the candy bar to the process of making it. Corporate Websites: The corporate websites I looked at were hesrheys. com, and usa. cadbury. com. Through the corporate websites I was hoping to learn about where their cocoa comes from, how chocolate is made, and some statistics on chocolate. I was also hoping to see how the companies are working towards sustainable cocoa crops and if they are Fair Trade or if they are doing anything to support fair wages and better living conditions for cocoa farmers. Hershey’s has a printer and user friendly section on how chocolate is made which talks very little about how cocoa is grown and harvested, focusing more on how cocoa is processed. (4) The site also links directly to the Hershey Company website which is separate from the site that would come up if searched in google. This is where the mission statement, information for investors, and a section on corporate responsibility are available. The company signed a protocol in 2001 to ensure children are not being harmed hrough cocoa production but both websites fail to state where the majority of their cocoa comes from. It also discusses supporting ECHOES and ICI to work towards sustainability and fair practices for cocoa farmers, but none of the cocoa used is Fair Trade Certified. (5) At my grocery store, Hershey bars are sold for less than a dollar, which is often the cheapest chocolate bar I can find. This makes me wonder if by flexing its corporate muscle, Hershey is forcing desper ate farmers to use child labor and treat all workers poorly. The Cadbury brand was recently acquired by Kraft, but still maintains a separate website from the massive corporation. The website fails to really explain how chocolate is made or where it comes from, but does give some incite as to when chocolate first went commercial and then corporate. It is one of the older companies out there, starting in 1825. The section about what the company strives for explains quite a bit about how cocoa farmers wind up being exploited and why child labor isn’t a surprise in the industry, since the focus is growth, efficiency, and capability. The website is upstanding in that it has a strong section on corporate responsibility, stating that Cadbury in the UK and Ireland are fair-trade certified, as is the cocoa used to make Green and Black, one of the offshoot brands of Cadbury. This portion of the site also discusses the Cadbury Cocoa Partnership, which is working with the United Nations to improve farmer outcomes and develop communities. I also found some nifty facts in random places, such as how much cocoa is used by the company annually. The facts are not static, the pop up each time you move to a new section of the site. 6) I felt like the Cadbury site was a good example of a corporation responding to customer demand by moving towards fair trade cocoa, and by showing the initiatives the company is taking to help the lives of cocoa farmers. Child Labor: One of the common themes I found when researching how cocoa is grown and harvested was the use of child and/or slave labor. A major expose was done on the subject by S udarsan Raghavan and Sumana Chatterjee and published by Knight Ridder Newspapers in 2001. It then hit other major media outlets including the BBC, as well as organizations such as Global Exchange. The expose paints a picture of young boys working long hard hours with little food, poor health care and daily beatings. It also explains the challenges faced by those in poverty in Mali and surrounding regions where children are offered money for their families and a chance to see other parts of the world in order to lure them into the work. Finally it points to the lack of control over market prices and the hidden nature of slavery in Africa, claiming that the responsibility is placed on the government and manufacturers of chocolate. 1) While I agree that this is where major influences lie, I also think it fails to hold the consumer AND the growers accountable. Also, governments in the countries where the cocoa is sold need to be held accountable as well. This expose was one of the first if not the first items I read about child labor in chocolate, and it made me want to look further into the subject. I feel like it will be useful in showing the consumer the realities faced by stru ggling cocoa workers on the Ivory Coast. One of the sites I came across was Stop Chocolate Slavery. It has a section called Take Action which gives advice for consumers on how to work towards child labor free chocolate. It also has a section called Slave Free chocolate which lists some products that the site deems worthy of consumer purchase. (8) I will use this site for my section about what can be done by consumers. I also used the News and Information section to find a link to the expose mentioned above. (8) Another source I found was an article written by Sarah Cheyes called â€Å"Chocolate and Slavery. One of the first things Cheyes points out is that forced labor is a problem around d the world because humans are seen as commodities and children are used and discarded; being seen as easily replaceable. She discusses the initiatives sought to place â€Å"Slave Free† labels on products in 2001 and how the U. S. chocolate industry responded by sending lobbyists to ward off the possible legislation, claiming that the labels would hurt the people of West Africa and that th ey had no way of knowing what cocoa beans were slave free because all beans were combined together before delivery. The chocolate companies themselves said they were not responsible for the farming practices of their suppliers. After major media articles and with impending government action, the companies finally decided on action. They signed the Harkin- Engel Protocol, which was facilitated by 3 senators in late 2001, was designed to eliminate the worst forms of child labor in the chocolate industry by 2005. It was signed by most of the major chocolate manufacturers along with several progressive organizations. However, it only targets child labor in West Africa, and is not a LAW but a protocol. This means it is difficult to enforce, and it does not address the problem in other cocoa producing countries. It also fails to address the causes of forced or child labor in poor countries. (2) Cheyes includes a section in her article on the causes of child labor in cocoa manufacturing, pointing to the fact that manufacturers encourage poor countries to grow cocoa, and with a mass supply, this drives down market prices for the commodity. This often forces poor farmers to save on costs any way possible, including child labor. According to the Prime Minister of the Ivory Coast, manufacturers would have to pay more than ten times what they do in order to end forced labor in cocoa production. It would also help to educate farmers about how the market works and find ways for the 40 percent population of the country to be less dependent on cocoa. Farmers are unable to communicate and often forced to rely on middlemen who cheat them. Also, there haven’t been enough efforts to create a stable and sufficient price for cocoa. This causes producer incomes to remain low, and poverty means desperation. (8) Chocolate And Slavery† also discusses alternatives, including Fair Trade collectives that require a signature from purchasers guaranteeing a fair price plus a premium that guarantee a living wage for farmers as well as money that goes into a fund for improvements in the community. Cheyes also mentions that some manufacturers simply don’t buy cocoa from West Africa. This solution fails to address or eradicate the problem, and may actually hurt the farmers more. She also discusses the responses of those in the chocolate industry as well as professional cooks and pastry chefs. She mentions one manufacturer representative who denied the existence of a problem. She also talks about the conflict of a professional asking a purveyor for slave free cocoa or the sobering reality that one uses cocoa that is slave manufactured, but is unable or unwilling to do anything about it. She goes on to point out that it may be those professionals who wield the most power to create change. We live in a world of celebrity chefs and cooking shows that glamorize the profession, and if those celebrities would make an effort they could make a huge difference. They do however face a conflict, in that by angering major chocolate manufacturers, they may lose the sponsorships that allow their fame to continue. (8) Cheyes closes out her article with a section on what can be done by the general public. She encourages education on the subject, both for you and for others. She says to write letters to chocolate manufacturers, and if in the industry to work with your purveyors to find chocolate derived from free market cocoa. Of course she encourages the purchase of only free trade chocolate, and to encourage others to do the same. (8) I found this article incredibly informative. It gave me a much better perspective on the causes behind both child and forced labor in the cocoa industry, as well as some of the politics in the U. S. surrounding the problem. It also gave me insight into why the problem may still exist. I will use much of this information in my background section, as well as my fact section. More recently an independent audit by Tulane University shows that the efforts that were supposed to create 100 percent child free labor certification by 2010, have failed to even come close to reaching goals. The article â€Å"Child Labor Still Key in Ingredient in Chocolate Industry,† shows that the Harkin-Engel Protocol which created community based education and monitoring programs has done some good, but less than 3 percent of cocoa growing villages in the Ivory Coast have been visited by monitors. The article does mention that Kraft in the U. S. plans to carry chocolate that is labeled sustainable and Mars, the largest buyer of cocoa in the world, plans to go completely sustainable by 2020. This does not; however mean that the cocoa is Fair Trade or slave free. There is no mention of Hershey at all in the article, nor does it offer other smaller brands or companies that use sustainable cocoa, nor why the problem of child labor exists. (3) This article shows that more still needs to be done to encourage free market cocoa use by major companies. It also shows that there needs to be more education on the differences between sustainable and fair trade. Fair Trade and Sustainability: Another theme I found when researching chocolate was Fair Trade Cocoa, and Sustainable cocoa farming. Buying Fair Trade chocolate is one of the things all consumers can do to help cocoa farmers around the world. Sustainable cocoa farming is important for preserving the environment. One of the sources I found about Fair Trade is the website for Fair Trade USA, which is the only Independent, third-party Fair Trade Certifier in the U. S. at this time. It is also one of 24 members of Fair Trade Labeling Organizations International (FLO. ) The company site gives an overview and definition of Fair Trade in the section called Fair Trade Overview. It explains the principles of Fair Trade, including fair price, fair labor conditions, direct trade, democratic and transparent organizations, community development, and environmental sustainability. There is a section called Social benefits which talks about kids being able to go to school instead of working on the farms, farmers being able to feed their families, and efforts to help educate the community and provide healthcare. It also provides a FAQ section as well as information about the organization such as the board of directors as mission statements. 7) I find it interesting that one organization holds the monopoly on providing Fair Trade certifications in the U. S. and that it seems to operate like a corporation. While this website helped me understand the Fair Trade certification process, and I think the idea of Fair Trade is super important, I wonder if this organization is making money off of the process, and if so, where that money goes. Another organization whose websit e I used as a source was that of the FLO. The FLO is 24 international organizations that set international fair trade standards and support fair trade producers. The site explains how standards for fair trade are set and who sets them. It gives a strong explanation as to what fair trade is and how it can benefit the growing community. There is a timeline about how FLO started and a section on the international Fair Trade label. There is a section that allows you to search for fair trade price and premium minimums, and an updated section on the standards for each certified product. I was sad to find upon searching that many standards in regard to cocoa were pre 2004, and had not been recently updated. 10) This shows me that although Fair Trade is an amazing advance for the cocoa industry, more needs to be done. The price that would allow a living wage for a cocoa farmer has surely changed since 2004, so these organizations need to step it up. Maybe there needs to be a different system set up that allows prices to fluctuate based on inflation and other economic factors. I found the World Cocoa Foundation website to be incredibly helpful as well . There are sections called Who We are and one called What We Do give background on the foundation. Their mission is to, â€Å"†¦promote a sustainable cocoa economy through economic and social development and environmental stewardship in cocoa-growing communities. † What We Do is broken down by region. In the Africa section I learned that 70 percent of the world cocoa supply comes from Africa, 90 percent of which is grown on nearly 2 million family farms consisting of 2 hectares or less of land. The World Cocoa Foundation holds to their mission in many ways, such as training farmers to better manage pests and to diversify crops, improving education at all levels, and teaching about HIV/AIDS and providing health care. Another section called Sustainability Principles and Goals shows more efforts made by the foundation based on specific goals such as Profit, People, and the Planet. A section called Learn About Cocoa breaks down the cocoa commodity chain from harvest, straight on through to the global market. This section taught me that cocoa has to be harvested by hand, and that the beans must ferment before shipping, and reminded me of the process for making that bar of chocolate. There is also a section that addresses efforts to curb child labor. 9) This website shows that there are efforts to help cocoa farmers that don’t just include Fair Trade, and that one can get involved on a deeper level than writing organization or buying Fair Trade certified chocolate if they want to. The site also gave me quite a bit of history and background information about cocoa and chocolate. Conclusion: My research brought to me to many conclusions, and brought up as many questions as it answered. I wonder w ho is on the board of stakeholders for FLO. Does the board that creates fair trade standards for cocoa include cocoa farmers who are more aware of the realities of middle men and harsh conditions, or does it only include CEO’s and other higher level corporate types who are driven by profit and disconnected from the farmers? I also question why the U. S. government sponsored and corporately signed Harkin-Engel Protocol in only a protocol and hasn’t been changed into a law which is more enforceable and holds those who signed it more accountable for their actions. The average consumer has no idea that forced and child labor exists in the chocolate industry or why it does. They may know about fair trade chocolate and have a general idea of what fair trade is, but they often balk at the extra cost, preferring to reach for the $1. 00 Hershey bar or bag of Mamp;M’s. I think that it is so important to make consumers aware of the commodity chain that goes into producing the food we eat. It is important for consumers to know how much the cocoa farmer is getting paid, and what projects are being funded by buying fair trade chocolate. I also think it’s important for consumers to be aware of how their demand for lower cost food is affecting everyone down the commodity chain. I think it is important for the media to continue showing pieces that expose working conditions for farmers in third world countries, and for people to be more curious about their food. In order to find more information, people have to dig deeper, going to media sources that are not big corporate run sources, and hold themselves, their governments, and corporations responsible. It is important to take little steps, which will in turn add up to bigger steps. Becoming informed, demanding fair trade cocoa use from big chocolate manufacturers, buying only fair trade, sustainable chocolate, and getting to know your local farmer so you feel reconnected to the food will eventually add up to a stronger movement towards responsible, fair, and sustainable cocoa and chocolate production. Sources: 1) Chatterjee, Sumana and Raghavan, Sudarsan, â€Å"A Taste of Slavery,† Knight Ridder Newspapers, June 24th, 2001, accessed via http://vision. ucsd. edu/~kbranson/stopchocolateslavery/atasteofslavery. html#pa rt1 2) Chayes, Sarah, â€Å"Chocolate and Slavery†, Chocolate Work, http://www. hocolatework. com/chocolate-slavery. htm 3) Oved, Marco, Chown, â€Å"Child Labor Still Key Ingredient to Chocolate Industry,† Associated Press, October 8th 2010, accessed via http://www. theglobeandmail. com/news/world/africa-mideast/forced-child-labour-still-key-ingredient-to-chocolate-industry-study/article1749279/ 4) http://www. hersheys. com/ 5) http://www. thehersheycompany. com/ 6) http://usa. cadbury. com/Pages/Home. aspx 7) http://www. transfairusa. org/ 8) http://vision. ucsd. edu/~kbranson/stopchocolateslavery/main. html 9) http://www. worldcocoafoundation. org/index. html 10) http://www. fairtrade. net/

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John Smith essays We may know that Captain John Smith was one of the first American Heroes, but what parts of his life are we able to believe. John Smith was a proud and boastful man, and was often being saved by beautiful women. He set sail for America in December 20, 1606 and finally reached Virginia in April 1607. On May 13, 1607 the settlers landed in Jamestown and began the struggle to survive in their new environment. Life was difficult in Jamestown for the settlers, they dealt with the harsh winters, lack of fresh water and a spreading of diseases. Another thing that made life hard was attacks from the natives. The native hoped that the settlers would give up and leave, so they raided their camps, stole their pistols, gunpowder and other necessary supplies. John Smith became leader of the colonists and tried his best to fight off the natives. In December of 1607, ,John Smith and some other colonists were attacked with by Indian deer hunters. The Indians killed the other Englishmen that were with him and carried John back with them to their leader. Chief Wahunascawh was to decide his fate, however he was greatly impressed by Smiths self-confidence. As well as his tools he has with him, including an ivory and glass pocket compass he carried with him. Smith was questioned about his colony, and was a part of a ritual. Wahunascawhs daughter, Pocahontas was part of the ritual as well. Since Smith did not know what his fate was he was given the impression the Pocahontas saved him, which may not be the truth. Smith was released through friendship after four weeks of captivity. Disagreement between the colony grew, due to lack of supplies, laziness and periodic attempts at abandonment by many colonists. As well many disagreements over new policies being formulated in London. As a result, Smith left Jamestown to explore and map the Chesapeake Bay region and search for badly needed food supplies. He was elceted president of th...

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Telecommunication companies in uk (fixed line) - Essay Example Reports have highlighted that the market volumes around the world are expected to rise to 1,180 million (Datamonitor, 2009). It has also been estimated that the voice only transmission segment generates as much as 61% of the overall market value and this amounts to almost $330.9 billion (Datamonitor, 2009). The non voice transmissions segment however generated revenue of about $204.6 billion in 2008 which totals to almost 38.2% of the market aggregate (Datamonitor, 2009). The history of telephone in Britain dates back to 1877, when telephone first arrived there. Sir William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) demonstrated the primal telephone invented by Graham Bell to the British Association for the Advancement of Science assembly, which is situated at Glasgow in September 1876, giving its description as "the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph" (Gow & Smith, 2006). However, the very first pair of handy telephones happened to be seen in Great Britain only in July 1877. William Preece who was the Chief Electrician of the Post Office brought this pair to UK. Later, after a few months passed, the British Association put the ‘perfected’ type of telephone by Graham Bell on display in a meeting at Plymouth. Finally, later in the year 1878, the British company took up the Bell patent and the Telephone Co. Ltd. was formed. This happens to be the oldest company in Telecommunication history of Europe, which later became well know n as BT (British Telecom). Here in, the first telephone line was set up. This was erected starting from Londons Hays Wharf at the south of the Thames stretching up to Hays Wharf Office on the northern side of the river (Connected Earth, 2007). This company later was amalgamated, taken over and eventually the control was transferred to state, under the control of the Post Office. This later became a privatized company, British Telecommunications private limited company; that serves 170 countries as on date (When

Video Game Guru Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Video Game Guru - Essay Example My outward appearance gives a lot of my friends reason to classify me as a gamer. This is most likely because the images proudly displayed on whatever T-shirt I'm wearing at the moment usually feature some favorite video game character or another. If it isn’t a character specifically, it will most likely be an often quoted line from a game, an abbreviation in ‘gamer speak’ that usually only other gamers recognize or a walking advertisement for my most recent gaming equipment. I almost always have some sort of pocket game handy and I'm the guy everybody comes to when they want to know the best cheats for the most popular game to hit the market this week. Since this is the case, most of the time when my friends find me, I'm either buried in the game itself or deep in conversation with someone else about what to do when the aliens come jumping over boulders at you in Halo 2. No matter what my friends think, though, I identify myself as a gamer because I am intensely interested in all the different facets of gaming. More than just being interested in knowing what the different cheats are in the various games, I want to know about the graphics quality, the sound effects, the realism, the action, the artificial intelligence of the characters and so much more. For me, it is not enough to just play the game and see how far I get. When new games come out, I have known about them since their earliest development.

Polycythemia Vera: Causes and Treatment

Polycythemia Vera: Causes and Treatment From the ancient times to the modern era of today where everything is said to be changed irrespective the good or bad, not only mankind had undergone an evolution but so as the diseases which is why new medical innovations are highly needed to counteract such dilemma. Diseases do not only invade a person externally but also can spread internally as well such as blood diseases. Blood diseases are diseases that involve the mechanisms, functions, site of production, and most importantly the components of blood. According to Hezy (2010), one of the major blood disease is polycythemia Vera, also known as erythremia, primary polycythemia, and polycythemia rubra Vera. Polycythemia Vera is a myeloproliferative rare blood disease in which the bone marrow produces excessive amount of erythrocytes and may also result in the overproduction of leukocytes or platelets causing the blood to be thicker and travels slower than normal. This is a very serious problem as sooner or later the person would suffer from heart attack or stroke as the possibility of having a stroke or heart failure increase by 80% if a person suffers from polycythemia Vera due to blockage of blood vessels. Although polycythemia Vera is considered a very rare disease, it still happens among us despite its low possibility. Therefore, treatments are highly recommended as it could be fatal or lead to another sort of diseases as well because a subset of patients with polcythemia Vera may progress to acute myelogenous leukemia or myelofibribrosis stated by ClinicalKey (2012). From the research of Ann Intern Med (2013), the statistics shown that polycythemia Vera can occur in any individual irrespective age or gender but it has been proven that is it more common among people with the age group of 50 to 70 years. In overall, polycythemia Vera is more prevalent in men than in women. According to Vanasse G., et al (2008), the data claimed from major commercial insurance payers in Connecticut and the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services estimated that the number of patients with polycythemia Vera is 22 per 100,000 respectively for the age-standardized prevalence and it is also estimated that there is a total of approximately 65,200 patients with polycythemia Vera applying the age-specific prevalence to the entire US population in 2003 which is the first assessed prevalence of polycythemia Vera in the large US population. Moreover, Brian J.S., et al (2004) stated that a comprehensive review reported the incidence of polycythemia Vera to be 2.3 per 100,000 each year worldwide. After a thorough diagnosis, the seriousness of polycythemia Vera is underscored by the fact that the median survival for untreated symptomatic patients is about six months to one and a half year but for treating patients, the median survival can be surprisingly prolonged to about seven to fifteen years. Based on DoctorTipster (2011), there are a few factors that may increase the risk of developing polycythemia Vera. Firstly, aging is one of the unavoidable factors as the chances of developing polycythemia Vera grow with age. Normally people around the age of 60 years are more prone to this disease and it is hardly found in people who are under 20 years of age. Secondly, it is a fact that polycythemia Vera effects with predilection men and lesser in women by comparison. Thirdly, families with medical history is also one of the risk factors that can lead to polycythemia Vera. Most cases of polycythemia Vera are not inherited, it is associated with genetic changes that are somatic, means that they acquire during a persons lifetime and are only present in certain cells and not transmitted or passed down generally from parents to children. However, in rare instances family history of polycythemia Vera especially relatives are said to be the cause for the increase of risk for developing t he disease. In these families, the risk of developing polycythemia appears to have an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. Autosomal dominant inheritance means that one copy of an altered gene in each cell is sufficient to increase the risk of developing polycythemia Vera, although in these cases no causative genes have been identified but these people seem to inherit an increased risk of polycythemia Vera, not the disease itself. Last but not least, the environmental conditions or lifestyles also count as a risk factor as well as polycythemia Vera can occur due to different lifestyles or even different exposures to environmental conditions such as radiation. Exposure to intense radiation may actually increase the risk for the condition or even trigger the disease because the main reason for the development of disease is genetic mutation. Lack of exercise or unhealthy diet will only aggravate the body conditions as most of the people nowadays are already in bad shape because o f neglecting health care for work and stress. Pr Jean B. (2010), stated that the main source of determining an individual either with or without polycythemia Vera is based on whether the mutation occurred in the bodys genes which is the major cause of polycythemia Vera. Polycythemia Vera happens because of the presence of abnormal clonal stem cell expansion that suppresses the growth and maturation of normal stem cell which is a somatic mutation known as JAK2-V617F commonly in exon 14 of the JAK2 gene or in exon 12 which is less common. However, exactly what causes the mutation is still a matter of debate. The presence of a V617F or a mutation of the JAK2 gene can be diagnosed because the gene actually functions to make a protein that aids the body in producing blood cells and so there will be an elevation in the amount of white blood cells, platelets, hematocrit, hemoglobin, and most of all the red blood cell mass which is about 125% greater compared with the normal. As a result, the blood will become thicker and harder to pump which is very dangerous as it can relate to heart attack, stroke, and other health diseases. Almost all of the health problems associated with polycythemia Vera are caused by the blood of the individual being unusually thick due to overproduction of red blood cells in the body. The disease is more common in the elderly and can be either symptomatic or asymptomatic. TheFreeDictionary (2013), stated that normally there will be common signs and symptoms such as itching and severe burning pain in the hands or feet accompanied by a reddish and bluish colouration of the skin most likely on the face. Unfortunately, patients with polycythemia Vera are also likely to develop gouty arthritis. As the development of polycythemia Vera is rather slow, signs and symptoms might not show for years. Therefore, the disease is often found out when a blood test is done for other purposes. However, when the signs and symptoms are present due to the thickness of the blood slowing down the flow of oxygenated blood to all parts of the body and this will lead to many parts of the body unable to funct ion properly with insufficient oxygen. As a result, one may experience headaches, dizziness, blurred or double vision, shortness of breath, numbness, itchiness especially after bathing with hot water, fatigue, and more. Besides that, there are actually levels or phases where symptoms or effects are shown at various stages. The symptoms of the early polycythemia Vera may be minimal so it is not unusual for the disease to be discovered easily. Patients often experience symptoms like headaches, confusion or impaired memories, breathing difficulty, giddiness, vomiting, hypertension and much more which people would treat them like a minor or a common issue. In some patients early symptoms include unusual heavy bleeding from minor cuts, nosebleeds, pain in the bone, or stomach ulcers but there are a few cases the first symptoms is the development of blood clots in an unusual part of the circulatory system such as the liver. As the disease develops, the patients may have episodes of thromb osis or hemorrhage where the fact that thrombosis is the most frequent cause of death from polycythemia Vera. Other complications include a high concentration of uric acid in the blood which increases the risk of getting other diseases. About 10% of the patients eventually develop gout and the other 10% develop peptic ulcers. Based on MayoClinic (2012), one of the effects of polycyhemia Vera is causing the spleen to be greatly enlarged also known as splenomegaly as the spleen aids the body against infections and filter unwanted materials such as old or damaged blood cells. With the increased number of blood cells caused by polycythemia Vera, the spleen intends to work harder than normal which leads to spleen enlargement and the patients spleen may even be able to fill the entire left side of the abdomen as time goes on. Therefore, the patients might have the feeling of fullness or bloated in the upper left part of the abdomen. Where there is a problem, there will always be solutions to overcome it. According to the BodyandHealth.canada.com (1997), polycythemia Vera is treated with procedures, medicines, and some other treatments. A person with polycythemia Vera may need one or more treatments to manage this disease. The actual goals of treating this blood disease are to control the symptoms and reduce the risk of complications especially heart failure and stroke so in order to achieve the target, the treatments for polycythemia Vera reduce the number of erythrocytes and the level of hemoglobin in the blood which will make the thickness of the blood to be much closer to normal, thus reducing the chances of blood clots in the blood vessels. For this disease, the most recommended treatment is phlebotomy. Phlebotomy is a procedure that removes some blood from the body by inserting a needle into one of the veins and channels the blood into a sterile container via an airtight tube which is quite similar to the p rocess of blood donation. Through this treatment, the red blood cell count is reduced and this brings the thickness of the blood closer to normal. Typically, 1 unit of blood which is around 350ml is removed per week until the hematocrit level which is the measure of how much space red blood cells occupied in the blood falls back to normal and this process is normally carried out every few months. The next treatment involves medications, the doctors may prescribe certain medicines for example hydroxyurea and interferon-alpha that prevents the bone marrow from making way too many red blood cells. Hydroxyurea is a medicine generally used in treating cancer, it has the ability to reduce the number of red blood cells and platelets in the blood whereas interferon-alpha is a substance that our bodies usually produces to prompt our immune system to fight against overactive bone marrow cells. Moreover, radiation treatment is also available as it can help to suppress overactive bone marrow ce lls which prevent them from making red blood cells uncontrollably but this treatment is less recommended by doctors as the radiation treatment can increase the risk of leukaemia or other blood diseases. Another treatment is by taking aspirin as aspirin can relieve bone pain and the burning sensation in the hands and feet due to polycythemia Vera. In addition, aspirin also has the function to dilute blood so besides relieving pains it also thins the blood causing the blood to flow better in the blood vessels. However, taking aspirin can have side effects without the controlling the amount or dosage. For those who cannot resist the itching caused by polycythemia Vera, the doctor may also prescribe ultraviolet light treatment to relieve the itching. As preventions are better than cure, it is always a better choice not to rely too much on medications or drugs when solving problems related to health but try using other methods instead if possible. According to the NasionalHeartLungBloodinstitution (2011), people with polycythemia Vera should bath using cool water as it helps to reduce the irritation of the skin. Then, always remember to pat the body dry gently after bathing because vigorous rubbing with a towel can also irritate the skin as well. Lastly, one can also take starch baths by adding half a box of starch to a tub of lukewarm water because starch baths can actually help to soothe the skin. Besides taking trivial measures in daily activities, there are other ways to prevent or reduce the risk of one getting polycythemia Vera. First of all moderate physical activities such as walking and stretching is required to maintain a healthy heart rate and to improve blood flow in the body. By improving the blood flowing in the body , the risk of blood clots can be minimized. Following a healthy lifestyle can lower the risk of heart and lung disease, also will help to prevent one from developing secondary polycythemia. Sometimes, secondary polycythemia can be prevented by avoiding activities that will deprive our bodies of oxygen for long periods such as mountain climbing, smoking or other vigorous activities and sports. As a conclusion, polycythemia Vera is a chronic, and dangerous disease that can be very much fatal if not diagnosed and treated well. Although this disease has no cure, at least until today but the treatments provided will be able to help control the disease and its complications thus prolong more lives. However, it is wiser that we as the owner of our own health should bear most of the responsibilities rather than just relying on doctors and medicines when problems arise as an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. Movements in Films | An overview Movements in Films | An overview Neoclassicism Neoclassicism (began after 1750) was a revival of Greek and Roman art; a direct reaction to the excessiveness of Baroque and Rococo styles. During the American and French Revolutions, the political atmosphere began to lean towards an Age of Reason and Enlightenment. With admiration for classical Roman and Greek art renewed after excavations of Herculaneum and Pompei, efforts for style to accompany philosophy caused an inevitable return to the classics. During this period, the subject matter often included a reverence for nature, tradition and the classics, moral values (such as nationalism and courage), along with a distrust for innovation. Early works of artists such as Jean August Dominique Ingres and especially Jacques-Louis David encompassed the thematic elements associated with Neoclassicism. Jacques-Louis Davids Oath of the Horatii can be considered as a turning point for the beginning of the neoclassic style. The painting possesses many qualities synonymous with neoclassicism. It is a tribute to Roman history, depicting three men with intense, dramatic and contrasted lighting, clarity of the characters forms/ gestures, and a deliberately simple composition. Davids Death of Marat is another example of a theatrical piece that combines a balanced composition and symbolism (martyrdom) with the moral undertone of the painting. Two other examples of Neoclassicist paintings are Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne and La Grande Odalis que. Romanticism Romanticism ( early-mid 19th century) was in reaction to Neoclassicism. Characteristics of Romanticist paintings include painterly brushstrokes, a clear display of emotion, nature, and diagonals. Some examples of this type of art includes Liberty Leading the People and Death of Sardanpalus by Eugà ¨ne Delacroix where his practiced use of expressive brushstrokes is made visible. Liberty Leading the People is an example of a romanticized symbol of France. Different social classes can be seen in French Romanticism, where the dead, dying, stronger, and strongest are specifically allocated throughout the piece. Other examples of Romanticist art includes The Raft of Medusa and Evening: Landscape with an Aquaduct by Thà ©odore Gà ©ricault. British Romanticism was more focused on using pure abstraction to help create expression. Examples include J.M. W. Turners Burning of Parliament and Rain, Steam and Speed The Great Western Railway. This type of use of ochre and white streaks was common, along with pastoral elements. John Constables The Hay Way and Dedham Vale are two other examples of British Romanticism. This type of art was easy to look at for the viewer. Realism Realism (mid 19th century) was created by a French group called the Barbizon School. Like the name implies a dedication to trying to capture the details through observation was an objective for the French Realists. Examples include Woman with a Pearl and Venise, La Piazzetta. Realists did not necessarily try to recreate what was directly in front of them, adjusting the situation to create an ideal piece was common and more practical. Other examples include Jean-Franà §ois Millets The Sower and The Gleaners. These types of works inspired the (post) impressionists that would see these exhibited paintings later on. Realism in landscapes is also seen in Courbets works, such as Plage de Normandie and Self-portrait (The Desperate Man) Impressionism Impressionism (1870s -1880s) was a term created from the first named Impressionist work, Claude Monets Impression, Sunrise. Characteristics of this type of painting includes the appreciation of art history, and an admiration upon light. Brush strokes are visible despite not being bold. Moments are captured, and time is a dimension that is fundamental in this type of art. Another example of a Monet that reflects Impressionisms characteristics well is Woman with a Parasol. Impressionism was a style that became highly developed, every brushstroke had its place, working with a highly selective palette. Edgar Degas New Orleans Cotton Exchange and The Dance Class are two famous examples of Impressionism. These paintings of ballet dancers became synonymous with the movement. Music in the Tuileries and The Luncheon on the Grass by Édouard Manet both further display this type of freeze-frame feeling. There is a certain serenity to this movement, and though the technique is variable, it ul timately results in a soft feel to the painting. The female figure was also often in the foreground of these pieces due to the political atmosphere, and the type of mood they helped establish within a piece. Post-Impressionism Post-Impressionism was a term coined by Roger Fry for one of Manets later exhibits. After no longer accepting the simple subject matter, and lack of compositional formatting in Impressionism, Post-Impressionist artists came up with their own ways to restore some more of the traditional compositional values into paintings. Georges Seurat used pointillism, a technique using dots of colour to allow them to blend into new colours through optical illusion, in his pieces such as Circus Sideshow and Le Chahut. Vincent Van Gogh used raw emotion and expressive brushstrokes in his pieces (Ex: Starry Night over the Rhone and Sunflowers, two of the most recognizable post-impressionist works) to recreate his own life and all the depressions that were contained within it. Other examples include Henri de Toulouse-Lautrecs At the Moulin Rouge: Two Women Waltzing and Quadrille at the Moulin Rouge. Late 19th Century Architecture Joseph Paxtons piece The Crystal Palace was a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, a piece that was the result of a movement away from traditional materials such as wood. Rather, a progression towards steel and new, more advanced materials was created. The Eiffel Tower (named after its engineer Gustave Eiffel) is another example of this type of architecture. An internation symbol for France, the tower is an engineering marvel, despite its intense criticism. Using purely steel for the structure of the body, it is an exploration of the new materials available during the era. Early 20th Century Architecture This type of architecture was a direct tie-in with Bauhaus. Artists such as Frank Lloyd Wright began exploring functional forms, and houses being living machines led to the creation of his works such as Falling Water, The Robie House and The Walter Fale House. The flat roofs and cantilever systems were brand new ideas in this type of art. Other examples include Le Corbusiers Centre Le Corbusier and Villa Savoye. Walter Gropius and Mies Van Der Rohe also explored the new possibilities created by mechanization and factories. (covered in Bauhaus) Suprematism Suprematism (which began in 1915) was a purely Russian art movement was devised by Kasimir Malevich as an era dedicated to geometric forms. Painting was reduced to ideas belonging to a supreme reality that embodied the essence of purity. This was a period that intersected cubo-futurism and (but came slightly before) Suprematism. Lyubov Popova was another important artist during this movement and a member of Malevichs Supremus group. His philosophy was that art should be reduced into a spiritual essence that exceeds the limits of religion and attains the supremacy of pure emotion. These paintings were minimal and done in a linear fashion. Malevichs Suprematist Composition: White on White is the ultimate example of Suprematism. After much experimentation with the tilting of a quadrilateral within a 4-dimensional frame and tampering with the relationship between art and science, the result was an incredibly pure painting using two shades of white. Another example would be Malevichs Black Square. Constructivism Constructivism (1919-1934), literally meaning to construct was a disciplinary artistic style that rose during the Russian Revolution. The new Communist order had decided to progress the ideas Analytic Cubism into the third dimension through sculpture. Contemporary, industrial materials such as glass, steel, wood, plastic were used in order to create engineering feats that were beyond art for arts sake. The movement was highly developed by Vladmir Tatlin, Naum Gabo, and Aleksander Rodchenko, the latter two who officially coined the term. According to Tatlin and his followers, these constructions were actually four-dimensional. Since they implied motion, they also implied time. The most recognizable piece of Constructivism was Tatlins attempt to create The Monument to the Third International. Meant to be constructed out of glass, iron and steel, it was hoped to have been a tower to supersede the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Even if the technology to create the monument had been available, there would most likely have been little to no structural practicality to it. In this type of utilitarian construction art, beauty is combined with some type of function or geometry: a twin helix being the main structure, glass four suspended forms (a cube, pyramid, a hemisphere, and a cylinder) all have practical uses, and the entire piece consists of futuristic paths to carry people through the structure with mechanical devices. Naum Gabo was colleagues and friends with Tatlin, Wassily Kandinsky, and Rodchenko. He began a new kind of plastic construction strung with nylon filament that comes very close to mathematical models. After looking for ties between art and science, the models he created in his Linear Construction series reflect upon modern physics that came after his time. Nylon threads are strung around a plexiglass base in an entirely mathematical arrangement. Contrary to many other constructivists, he partook in the movement in a purely spiritual sense. Gabo also had a strong interest in kinetic sculptures, which can be seen in his Revolving Torsion Fountain in London. With the main structure being made out of stainless steel, the contrastingly formless water is used as an integral moving element to complete the 4-dimensional composition. The jets pulsate at different levels, rotating and in particular rhythms. Selecting elements for specific purposes is a common trait of the mindset of a construc tivist. Dada Dadaism (1916-1922) was a direct reaction to the absurdity of World War I and the devastating amount of deaths it caused. This intellectual, anti-war movement ridiculed the disgusting parts of the world, such as the upper-class, rationale, and false nationalism and materialism. The name was selected randomly after flipping through a dictionary. This anti-art symbolized the opposite of everything that used to be considered aesthetically acceptable. Groups created in the name of Dada began forming, and the First German Dada Manifesto was published. Marcel Duchamp was a pioneer in this movement, beginning the use of readymades or found objects, and labelling them as art. His famous Fountain is nothing but a signed urinal, but captures the spirit of Dada. A worthless object has been signed to turn it into art, and is now something of value. Time, effort, and composition are no longer necessarily take into consideration to create art. L.H.O.O.Q. (Duchamp) was also another readymade piece of art, that is a mockery of traditional art. The name of the piece implies some kind of sexual joke based off the pun that comes from the French translation of Elle a chaud au cul, translating into There is a fire down below or She has a hot ass. This variant of the Mona Lisa was created many times, always with a moustache and beard in pencil upon the androgynous figures face. Taking part in the anti-art and nihilistic movement, Man Ray also began using readymades along with more conventional forms of media. His piece The Gift is a combination of an iron with rows of tacks glued to the bottom of. The object combines two ordinary objects to create a sadistic image and evokes a painful connection with the viewer. Another piece using a readymade by Ray is Indestructible Object. After photographing a picture of friend Lee Millers eye and placing it onto the moving pole of an analog metronome, Man Ray exhibited the piece naming it Object to Be Destroyed. In 1957, students destroyed his work, and after reconstructing, the piece was renamed Indestructible Object. Not only is the piece a part of Dada due to it being a readymade but the process and social criticism it received was expected from the movement. Acting against art, and raging for anti-art was a suitable response from viewers Surrealism Surrealism (began in the early 1920s) was a movement that succeeded Dada and contained many of the same artists. This cultural movement was highly influenced by the Freudian school of thought and psychiatry, dreams, fantasies and political motivations (Marxism/Communism/Anarchism) becoming a very intellectual reflection upon Parisian Nationalism, (sub)consciousness, and led to the creation of the Surrealist Manifesto. This movement to place across all media, such as painting, sculpture, photography, and film. The Surrealist Manifesto and the Second Manifesto of Surrealism were both written by Andre Breton. This poet was also a participant in the Dada movement, and at first praised automatic art and automatism of thoughts in art but later was more interested in narratives of dreams. The work of Salvador Dali is the quintessence of the period. His The Persistence of Memory is frighteningly realistic in terms of his technique like many of his other works, and uses symbols such as clocks, ants, and other unconscious creations. The reformation of a dream (in this case one of a paranoiac) on a canvas is the basis of most surrealist works. Another work that illustrates this Freudian idea of paranoia is Dalis Metamorphosis of Narcissus. The direct reflect of the staring Narcissus and the hand and egg is meant to recreate the feeling of paranoia when one mistakes one scenario for another. German Expressionism German Expressionism (1905-1925) was a period of raw, emotional art that took place between wars, during the recovery of World War I. The Treaty of Versailles had just been signed, and Germany was in large debt. This era was dedicated towards reflecting upon the difficult economy through not only paintings, but largely on film as well. This period was largely an influence on the Expressionism coming out of Germany at the same time. A cinematic example of a work of the era would be Metropolis by Fritz Lang. This science-fiction film was set in a relatable dystopia within a capitalist society where inter-class issues are the focus. Die Brucke was a group founded by four students specializing in architecture. These artists had no solid formal educations or school in art expect for some lessons. They worked cohesively and began a philosophical quest to bridge a bohemian life-style with a sense of imminent disaster. They were the driving force behind this movement. Sexual tension was a common theme in these pieces such as in Ernst Ludgwig Kitchners Self Portrait with Model and Georges Roualts Head of Christ. Both simplify shapes and use raw, simple colours to create very heavy, dense atmospheres around the pieces. Der Blaue Reiter was another group of artists led by Kandinsky and Franz Marc that wanted to approach their art more spiritually. These idealists sought to revive German art and eventually used woodcuts as their patriotic medium. Works from the group include Marcs The Tower of Blue Horses and Kandinskys Composition VII. This type of extreme and spiritual abstraction, and form simplification was part of the groups search for philosophical truth. Fauvism Fauvism (1904-1908), French for wild beasts, was a movement led by Henri Matisse and Andre Derain. Characteristics of the movement included bright areas of colour and flattening of form. The works were passionate and emotional with very painterly brush strokes and a focus on colour rather than realism. Matisses Woman with a Hat demonstrates this. Patches of colour surround the figure, and though a form is clear, there is definitely no focus upon trying to recreate what the artist saw directly. Rather, the colour scheme and interpretation of the colours at the moment are more important. This type of simplified colour/ figures is also seen with Matissess The Joy of Life. Andre Derain had worked with Matisse, and works such as Charing Cross Bridge exhibit the same type of bright, simplified colours but in a landscape setting. His Self-portrait in studio also shows this type of simplification, but with darker colours and more depth. This was a possible lead in to some of the ideas in the following movement. The boldness in colour and distortions during Fauvism is thought to have been from the influence of Van Gogh and Gaugins exhibited works. This was an incredibly modern movement in the 20th century. Cubism Analytic Cubism (1907-191) involves looking at the volume and space the structural unites from whicj to derive the faceted shapes of Analytic (or Facet) Cubism The facets are now so small and precise, more like prisms, and the canvas has the balance and refinement of a fully mature style There are high contrasts of texture and colour, monochromic palettes are common, and complex structures. Everything is broken down geometrically with sharp lines into cubistic forms. Synthetic Cubism (1912-1919) on the other hand was an alternative to Fauvism. Artists such as George Braque fell into this category, after beginning in Fauvism. This is also known as collage cubism. Form is flattened and there is a celebration of colour and the technique of collage. Some of Braques work in Analytic Cubism includes Violin, a piece that breaks apart a violin and is based off of a green hue, and The Mandolin, which focuses on different facets of a womans body practically disintegrating into sections. Picassos Still Life with Chair Caning and Guitar, Sheet Music, and Wine Glass are two examples of synthetic cubism. There are frames of reference, and things have been broken down in a way where it looks as if the final product was created through images being cut and paste on together. Bauhaus Bauhas was a school of thought that was founded by Walter Gropius in Germany and after development from previous concepts, buildings, and schools, the Bauhaus school building existed between 1919 and 1933 and had moved through three different cities due to Nazi pressure. Important components and influences of Bauhas wereInternational Style, functionalityin terms of (architectural) engineering, and geometric design principles. The Industrial Revolution, favtories, mass production and manufacturing were also a part of the movement. After the movement, many schools based their buildings and programs off the school. In general, the schools influence upon architecture, engineering, and redesign still impacts current lifestyles, presenting themselves everywhere in daily life (ex: the invention of tubular steel, flat-roofed buildings). The original director and master of Bauhaus, Gropius was largely responsible for the F 51 Armchair and Sofa. Other creations in modern dà ©cor by him include the D 51 and F 51-2. One of the later directors Ludwig Mies van der Rohe designed the Farnsworth house, 960-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments, and Seagram building. All these buildings reflect upon his mission to advance architecture with the leaps in technology and industry, combining rationalism with spirituality. Universally known, his Barcelona Chair and Ottoman is a modernistic icon that involves a twist upon Curule chairs and was manufactured/ targeted towards the common man market. Hannes Meyer was the second director of Bauhaus and was the first to help the school earn profit. He brought significant commission for the school, including creating building for the Gederal School of the German Trade Unions in Bernau and five apartment buildings in Dessau. American Abstract Expressionism Abstract expressionism (1940s-1950s) was the first entirely American-caused movement in direct reaction to World War II. Paint was put onto a surface to create pure art that had no narrative. Rather the pieces depended purely on line, form, surface, and the way paint acts. Harold Rosenberg described Pollock and other Abstract Expressionist canvases as an arena in which to act. What was to go on the canvas was not a picture but an event. Many paintings were described as action paintings, in where the process and layering of the paint could be considered more interesting and important than the final product and composition itself. Mark Rothko would use chunks of paint to create his pieces, to create multiforms. This was his key style and can be seen in No. 3/ No. 13. The canvas consists of only 6 colours in blocks. Another example is his painting No. 10. In contrast, Jackson Pollock often threw paint onto the surface, allowing it to do what paint does. His paintings No. 5, and Lavender are examples of his paint-throwing and recognizable dripping techniques. Other examples of Abstract Expressionist works include Lee Krasners Celebration and Little Image paintings, along with Barnett Newmans Onement 1and Whos Afraid of Red, Yellow, and Blue? Pop Art Pop art (began in mid 1950s) was based in Britain and the United States. Pop art was a diurect reaction to the high intellectualism of Abstract Expressionism, often focusing upon ordinary objects and regular daily commodities. Subject matter often included objects such as soup cans, boxes, comic boos, photos, etc. Pop culture and the Hollywood scene was a major influence upon the art during this age of mechanical reproduction. Richard Hamiltons collage Just What Is it that Makes Todays Homes So Different, So Appealing? is an iconic piece created from images from American magazines and is a reflection upon the economy, homes, and lifestyle of the time. Andy Warhols Campbells Soup I and series used the American food staple as the subject to avoid competing with Roy Lichensteins comic strip pieces and his potential as a consumer, being solely dedicated to the brand and product. Lictensteins infamous Whaam!contains an image of an American plane destroying an enemy jet. This comic-strip type of art was a reflection on the American lifestyle and the popularity of comic books during the age and the piece was based off an actual comic book panel. The piece tries not to develop a purposeful connection with the audience, allowing viewers to develop their own thoughts and interpretation of the image and caption. Claes Oldenburg also used this idea of consumer products, and often create soft sculptures of mundane obje cts. Lipstick (Ascending) on Caterpillar Tracks involved an oversized lipstick that would constantly deflate itself unless pumped by a viewer. Other pieces from the era include Oldenburgs Soft Bathtub (Model), Lichtensteins Drowning Girl, Hamiltons Interior and Warhols Brillo Box. Earth Art During Earth Art (late 1960s into early 1970s), artists began a movement against the restrictive qualities of galleries and traditional exhibitions. A desire for an open canvas led to the use of nature as a medium. In reaction to consumerism and the vast commercialization of art, the reaction of these artists was to create something impossible to purchase by using only natural materials, usually in an environment that could not be sold. As well, the temporary nature of most of these works would factor into how unfeasible it would be to attempt to purchase these works. Usually, these works can only exist through documentation as they are otherwise eradicated by time. Leading artist Robert Smithson created the Broken Circle and Spiral Jetty, two famous works that emerged during the period. Both pieces are protected, but nevertheless people still try to obtain parts of these works. Richard Long creates his pieces through walking upon paths entirely drawn from him. A Circle in Alaska Be ring Straight Driftwood on the Arctic Circle and A Line Made By Walking are two works both created through the pure interaction of his body and his earth. They will only last until nature takes its course, a trademark of Earth art. Christo and his wife Jean Claude focused their works upon the form that the world takes up, and wanted people to see things in a new perspective. Through many wrapped pieces, they considered themselves to be bringing unseen beauty to certain environemtns. The Running Fence and the wrapping of Point Neuf Bridge are some incredibly recognizable pieces. Both are reflections upon the form of nature. Minimalism Minimalism (late 1960s-early 1970s) involved the belief that there should be no agenda for a piece but the piece should be centred on itself. This type of art implies true aesthetic value. Often the works are precise, mechanical, and ready to be manufactured in a factory setting. The pieces are repetitive with no symbolism and are modular. Contrasting colours, sharp outlines, and a basis on geometric forms and the frame of reference were also components of this style. This was also applicable in the sculptural aspects of the style. Materials for this type of sculpture was usually industrial, ex: fiberglass, plastics/ other synthetics, metals. Donald Judds pieces are often untitled works that are simple and based purely on mathematics and geometry. This was also the same with Robert Morris. Richard Serra has a piece similar to one of Judds untitled works where a sculpture contains contains circles within circles at different tilts and heights. These were installations, however Solomon LeWitt focused more upon two dimensional pieces like Isometric Projection, Untitled (lithograph), and Tower. Serras The Matter Of Time and Fulcrum are sculptures based purely on untreated metals and steels. Performance Art Current Performance Art began in the beginning of the first half of the 20th century. The movement was dedicated towards the history of theatre. However, by the 1970s, Performance Art was usually concentrated and combined efforts on Happenings and Conceptual Art with installations. Shock value, (self-) mutilation, explicit sexuality, grotesque and unconventional humour. Audience interaction and breaking the fourth wall was also quite common. Laurie Anderson is a musician who experiments not only in sound through playing the violin and piano, but with her performances as well. She created the tape-bow violin that is still used as an experimental type of instrument by artists and musicians today. In the 1970s she performed/ recorded a violin piece while performing until the block of ice of which she stood on with ice skates completely melted away. Vito Acconci created an installation named Seedbed in which he was located beneath a ramp at the Sonnabend Gallery, where he masturbated and created a speaker system to allow his speakers here his voice and thoughts. Joseph Beuys had some notable performances, particularly when he became involved with Fluxus temporarily. His performance, How to Explain Pictures to a Dead Hare involved Beuys speaking into the ear of a dead hare he held in his arms, while his boot had an attached piece of iron, and his face was covered in honey and gold leaf. All these objects had a symbolic meanin g and there was an intended intellectual message for his audience. This Fluxus movement involiving multi-media flow also produced member Yoko Ono. Her performance Cut Piece (which can also be considered a happening) involved the audience participating through cutting her clothing off until she was naked. This allowed Ono to communicate her own feelings towards her audience through body and performance, rather than conventional mediums.